Venkatraman Seshan, PhD

A graphic display of depth, width, and height. Also called 3-D.

3-dimensional conformal radiation therapy involves the use of computed tomography (CT) imaging in the planning of radiation therapy. The CT scan provides not only 3-dimensional imaging of the target and surrounding normal tissues, but also information about tissue density and tissue depth from the skin to the target. These parameters are critical in calculating the dose distribution. In addition to CT imaging, supplemental imaging modalities, such as magnetic resonance imaging or positron emission tomography, can be used to improve target delineation. With 3-dimensional conformal radiation therapy, conformal beams are used to shape the dose delivered to the target, and wedges or compensators can be used to optimize the dose distribution. Conformal beams are shaped either with a high-density material (e.g., Cerrobend) that allows beam contouring or with multi-leaf collimators, which are an array of high-density leaves (usually tungsten) situated in the head of the linear accelerator (LINAC) whose position is controlled via independent stepping motors that allow beam shaping. Wedges are high-density devices that are placed on the head of the LINAC to act as a tissue compensator and/or beam modifier. The effect of a wedge can be created by a moving jaw at the head of the LINAC. With 3-dimensional conformal radiation therapy, variable field weighting and/or use of different energies (higher energies are more penetrating) are additional tools that enable optimization of the dose distribution. Also called 3-dimensional radiation therapy and 3D-CRT.

The area of the body that contains the pancreas, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, and other organs.

An abbreviation for a chemotherapy combination used with other types of therapy to treat breast cancer, including breast cancer that has spread or come back. It includes the drugs doxorubicin hydrochloride (Adriamycin) and cyclophosphamide. Also called AC regimen.

A chemical that gives off hydrogen ions in water and forms salts by combining with certain metals. Acids have a sour taste and turn certain dyes red. Some acids made by the body, such as gastric acid, can help organs work the way they should. An example of an acid is hydrochloric acid. Acidity is measured on a scale called the pH scale. On this scale, a value of 7 is neutral, and a pH value of less than 7 to 0 shows increasing acidity.

Cancer that begins in cells that line certain internal organs and that have gland-like (secretory) properties.

In medicine, describes a tumor or disease that forms, grows, or spreads quickly. It may also describe treatment that is more severe or intense than usual.

One of two or more DNA sequences occurring at a particular gene locus. Typically one allele (“normal” DNA sequence) is common, and other alleles (mutations) are rare.

A change resulting in something that is different from the original.

Pain relief.

A process in which anything complex is separated into simple or less complex parts.

A drug used to treat infections caused by bacteria and other microorganisms.

A protein made by plasma cells (a type of white blood cell) in response to an antigen (a substance that causes the body to make a specific immune response). Each antibody can bind to only one specific antigen. The purpose of this binding is to help destroy the antigen. Some antibodies destroy antigens directly. Others make it easier for white blood cells to destroy the antigen.

A drug that prevents or reduces nausea and vomiting.

A type of drug that stops cells from using folic acid to make DNA and may kill cancer cells. Certain antifolates are used to treat some types of cancer and inflammatory conditions, such as rheumatoid arthritis. Also called folate antagonist and folic acid antagonist.

Any substance that causes the body to make a specific immune response.

Blocking the formation of neoplasms (growths that may become cancer).

A laboratory test to find and measure the amount of a specific substance.

In healthcare, a process used to learn about a patient’s condition. This may include a complete medical history, medical tests, a physical exam, a test of learning skills, tests to find out if the patient is able to carry out the tasks of daily living, a mental health evaluation, and a review of social support and community resources available to the patient.

A substance being studied in the treatment of cancer. Belinostat blocks enzymes needed for cell division and may kill cancer cells. It also prevents the growth of blood vessels needed for tumors to grow and may make tumor cells more sensitive to other anticancer drugs. It is a type of histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor, a type of angiogenesis inhibitor, and a type of chemosensitizer. Also called PXD101.

Not cancerous. Benign tumors may grow larger but do not spread to other parts of the body. Also called nonmalignant.

The science of using computers, databases, and math to organize and analyze large amounts of biological, medical, and health information. Information may come from many sources, including patient statistics, tissue specimens, genetics research, and clinical trials.

The science of collecting and analyzing biologic or health data using statistical methods. Biometrics may be used to help learn the possible causes of a cancer or how often a cancer occurs in a certain group of people. Also called biometry and biostatistics.

The removal of cells or tissues for examination by a pathologist. The pathologist may study the tissue under a microscope or perform other tests on the cells or tissue. There are many different types of biopsy procedures. The most common types include: (1) incisional biopsy, in which only a sample of tissue is removed; (2) excisional biopsy, in which an entire lump or suspicious area is removed; and (3) needle biopsy, in which a sample of tissue or fluid is removed with a needle. When a wide needle is used, the procedure is called a core biopsy. When a thin needle is used, the procedure is called a fine-needle aspiration biopsy.

The science of collecting and analyzing biologic or health data using statistical methods. Biostatistics may be used to help learn the possible causes of a cancer or how often a cancer occurs in a certain group of people. Also called biometrics and biometry.

A tissue with red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and other substances suspended in fluid called plasma. Blood takes oxygen and nutrients to the tissues, and carries away wastes.

A drug used to treat metastatic or locally advanced breast cancer that has not improved after treatment with certain other anticancer drugs. It is also being studied in the treatment of other types of cancer. BMS-247550 stops the growth of tumor cells by blocking cell division. It is a type of epothilone analog. Also called ixabepilone and Ixempra.

The soft, sponge-like tissue in the center of most bones. It produces white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets.

A technique to create images of bones on a computer screen or on film. A small amount of radioactive material is injected into a blood vessel and travels through the bloodstream; it collects in the bones and is detected by a scanner.

A drug used to treat multiple myeloma. It is also used to treat mantle cell lymphoma in patients who have already received at least one other type of treatment and is being studied in the treatment of other types of cancer. Bortezomib blocks several molecular pathways in a cell and may cause cancer cells to die. It is a type of proteasome inhibitor and a type of dipeptidyl boronic acid. Also called PS-341 and velcade.

The long, tube-shaped organ in the abdomen that completes the process of digestion. The bowel has two parts, the small bowel and the large bowel. Also called intestine.

A type of radiation therapy in which radioactive material sealed in needles, seeds, wires, or catheters is placed directly into or near a tumor. Also called implant radiation therapy, internal radiation therapy, and radiation brachytherapy.

A gene on chromosome 17 that normally helps to suppress cell growth. A person who inherits certain mutations (changes) in a BRCA1 gene has a higher risk of getting breast, ovarian, prostate, and other types of cancer.

Glandular organ located on the chest. The breast is made up of connective tissue, fat, and breast tissue that contains the glands that can make milk. Also called mammary gland.

Cancer that forms in tissues of the breast, usually the ducts (tubes that carry milk to the nipple) and lobules (glands that make milk). It occurs in both men and women, although male breast cancer is rare.

A substance that may be found in high amounts in the blood of patients with certain types of cancer, including ovarian cancer. CA-125 levels may also help monitor how well cancer treatments are working or if cancer has come back. Also called cancer antigen 125.

A term for diseases in which abnormal cells divide without control and can invade nearby tissues. Cancer cells can also spread to other parts of the body through the blood and lymph systems. There are several main types of cancer. Carcinoma is a cancer that begins in the skin or in tissues that line or cover internal organs. Sarcoma is a cancer that begins in bone, cartilage, fat, muscle, blood vessels, or other connective or supportive tissue. Leukemia is a cancer that starts in blood-forming tissue such as the bone marrow, and causes large numbers of abnormal blood cells to be produced and enter the blood. Lymphoma and multiple myeloma are cancers that begin in the cells of the immune system. Central nervous system cancers are cancers that begin in the tissues of the brain and spinal cord. Also called malignancy.

A drug that is used to treat advanced ovarian cancer that has never been treated or symptoms of ovarian cancer that has come back after treatment with other anticancer drugs. It is also used with other drugs to treat advanced, metastatic, or recurrent non-small cell lung cancer and is being studied in the treatment of other types of cancer. Carboplatin is a form of the anticancer drug cisplatin and causes fewer side effects in patients. It attaches to DNA in cells and may kill cancer cells. It is a type of platinum compound. Also called Paraplatin.

Cancer that begins in the skin or in tissues that line or cover internal organs.

A malignant tumor that is a mixture of carcinoma (cancer of epithelial tissue, which is skin and tissue that lines or covers the internal organs) and sarcoma (cancer of connective tissue, such as bone, cartilage, and fat).

The individual unit that makes up the tissues of the body. All living things are made up of one or more cells.

An increase in the number of cells as a result of cell growth and cell division.

The brain and spinal cord. Also called CNS.

Relating to the neck, or to the neck of any organ or structure. Cervical lymph nodes are located in the neck. Cervical cancer refers to cancer of the uterine cervix, which is the lower, narrow end (the “neck”) of the uterus.

A substance made up of elements, such as hydrogen or sodium.

Treatment with drugs that kill cancer cells.

The muscles, bones, and joints that make up the area of the body between the neck and the abdomen.

A waxy, fat-like substance made in the liver, and found in the blood and in all cells of the body. Cholesterol is important for good health and is needed for making cell walls, tissues, hormones, vitamin D, and bile acid. Cholesterol also comes from eating foods taken from animals such as egg yolks, meat, and whole-milk dairy products. Too much cholesterol in the blood may build up in blood vessel walls, block blood flow to tissues and organs, and increase the risk of developing heart disease and stroke.

A drug used to treat many types of cancer. Cisplatin contains the metal platinum. It kills cancer cells by damaging their DNA and stopping them from dividing. Cisplatin is a type of alkylating agent.

Having to do with the examination and treatment of patients.

Examination of the vagina and cervix using a lighted magnifying instrument called a colposcope.

The disappearance of all signs of cancer in response to treatment. This does not always mean the cancer has been cured. Also called complete remission.

Occurring or existing at the same time as something else. In medicine, it may refer to a condition a person has or a medication a person is taking that is not being studied in the clinical trial he or she is taking part in.

Surgery to remove a cone-shaped piece of tissue from the cervix and cervical canal. Cone biopsy may be used to diagnose or treat a cervical condition. Also called conization.

Treatment that is given after cancer has disappeared following the initial therapy. Consolidation therapy is used to kill any cancer cells that may be left in the body. It may include radiation therapy, a stem cell transplant, or treatment with drugs that kill cancer cells. Also called intensification therapy and postremission therapy.

A type of lung disease marked by permanent damage to tissues in the lungs, making it hard to breathe. COPD includes chronic bronchitis, in which the bronchi (large air passages) are inflamed and scarred, and emphysema, in which the alveoli (tiny air sacs) are damaged. It develops over many years and is usually caused by cigarette smoking. Also called chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

An operation in which an opening is made in the skull.

Removal of tissue with a curette (a spoon-shaped instrument with a sharp edge).

A drug that is used to treat many types of cancer and is being studied in the treatment of other types of cancer. It is also used to treat some types of kidney disease in children. Cyclophosphamide attaches to DNA in cells and may kill cancer cells. It is a type of alkylating agent. Also called CTX and Cytoxan.

A drug that is used to treat asthma, allergies, and colds, and to relieve itching caused by certain skin disorders. It has also been used to stimulate appetite and weight gain, and is being studied in the treatment of weight loss caused by cancer and its treatment. Cyproheptadine belongs to the family of drugs called antihistamines.

Cell-killing.

Surgical removal of as much of a tumor as possible. Debulking may increase the chance that chemotherapy or radiation therapy will kill all the tumor cells. It may also be done to relieve symptoms or help the patient live longer. Also called tumor debulking.

The process of identifying a disease, such as cancer, from its signs and symptoms.

Widely spread; not localized or confined.

The molecules inside cells that carry genetic information and pass it from one generation to the next. Also called deoxyribonucleic acid.

A drug used to treat certain types of cancers of the breast, stomach, lung, prostate, and head and neck. It is being studied in the treatment of other types of cancer. Docetaxel kills cancer cells by stopping them from dividing. It is a type of taxane. Also called Taxotere.

The amount of medicine taken, or radiation given, at one time.

A drug that is used to treat many types of cancer and is being studied in the treatment of other types of cancer. Doxorubicin comes from the bacterium . It damages DNA and may kill cancer cells. It is a type of anthracycline antitumor antibiotic. Also called Adriamycin PFS, Adriamycin RDF, doxorubicin hydrochloride, hydroxydaunorubicin, and Rubex.

Swelling caused by excess fluid in body tissues.

The protein found on the surface of some cells and to which epidermal growth factor binds, causing the cells to divide. It is found at abnormally high levels on the surface of many types of cancer cells, so these cells may divide excessively in the presence of epidermal growth factor. Also called epidermal growth factor receptor, ErbB1, and HER1.

A substance that breaks up into ions (particles with electrical charges) when it is dissolved in water or body fluids. Some examples of ions are sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride, and phosphate. These ions help move nutrients into cells, help move waste out of cells, and help nerves, muscles, the heart, and the brain work the way they should.

Having to do with the endometrium (the layer of tissue that lines the uterus).

A procedure in which a sample of tissue is taken from the endometrium (inner lining of the uterus) for examination under a microscope. A thin tube is inserted through the cervix into the uterus, and gentle scraping and suction are used to remove the sample.

Cancer that forms in the tissue lining the uterus (the small, hollow, pear-shaped organ in a woman's pelvis in which a fetus develops). Most endometrial cancers are adenocarcinomas (cancers that begin in cells that make and release mucus and other fluids).

The layer of tissue that lines the uterus.

A protein that speeds up chemical reactions in the body.

The study of the patterns, causes, and control of disease in groups of people.

A protein made by many cells in the body and by some types of tumors. It causes cells to grow and differentiate (become more specialized). It is a type of growth factor and a type of cytokine. Also called EGF.

The protein found on the surface of some cells and to which epidermal growth factor binds, causing the cells to divide. It is found at abnormally high levels on the surface of many types of cancer cells, so these cells may divide excessively in the presence of epidermal growth factor. Also called EGFR, ErbB1, and HER1.

Having to do with the space between the wall of the spinal canal and the covering of the spinal cord. An epidural injection is given into this space.

Refers to the cells that line the internal and external surfaces of the body.

Cancer that occurs in the cells on the surface of the ovary. Also called ovarian epithelial cancer.

A protein found inside the cells of the female reproductive tissue, some other types of tissue, and some cancer cells. The hormone estrogen will bind to the receptors inside the cells and may cause the cells to grow. Also called estrogen receptor.

A drug used to treat certain types of non-small cell lung cancer. It is also used together with gemcitabine to treat pancreatic cancer and is being studied in the treatment of other types of cancer. Erlotinib is a type of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitor. Also called CP-358,774, erlotinib hydrochloride, OSI-774, and Tarceva.

Having to do with the esophagus, the muscular tube through which food passes from the throat to the stomach.

Cancer that forms in tissues lining the esophagus (the muscular tube through which food passes from the throat to the stomach). Two types of esophageal cancer are squamous cell carcinoma (cancer that begins in flat cells lining the esophagus) and adenocarcinoma (cancer that begins in cells that make and release mucus and other fluids).

The muscular tube through which food passes from the throat to the stomach.

A drug used to treat testicular and small cell lung cancers. It is also being studied in the treatment of several other types of cancer. Etoposide blocks certain enzymes needed for cell division and DNA repair, and it may kill cancer cells. It is a type of podophyllotoxin derivative and a type of topoisomerase inhibitor. Also called Toposar and Vepesid.

Surgery to remove organs within a body cavity.

The sequence of DNA present in mature messenger RNA, some of which encodes the amino acids of a protein. Most genes have multiple exons with introns between them.

Surgery to remove a diseased lung, part of the pericardium (membrane covering the heart), part of the diaphragm (muscle between the lungs and the abdomen), and part of the parietal pleura (membrane lining the chest). This type of surgery is used most often to treat malignant mesothelioma.

A slender tube through which eggs pass from an ovary to the uterus. In the female reproductive tract, there is one ovary and one fallopian tube on each side of the uterus.

A system developed by the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) describing the percentage of an endometrial tumor that is solid.

A substance that flows smoothly and takes the shape of its container. Liquids and gases are fluids.

A nutrient in the vitamin B complex that the body needs in small amounts to function and stay healthy. Folate helps to make red blood cells. It is found in whole-grain breads and cereals, liver, green vegetables, orange juice, lentils, beans, and yeast. Folate is water-soluble (can dissolve in water) and must be taken in every day. Not enough folate can cause anemia (a condition in which the number of red blood cells is below normal), diseases of the heart and blood vessels, and defects in the brain and spinal cord in a fetus. Folate is being studied with vitamin B12 in the prevention and treatment of cancer. Also called folic acid.

Monitoring a person's health over time after treatment. This includes keeping track of the health of people who participate in a clinical study or clinical trial for a period of time, both during the study and after the study ends.

Refers to the stomach and intestines. Also called GI.

A drug that is used to treat certain types of non-small cell lung cancer and is being studied in the treatment of other types of cancer. It is a type of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitor. Also called Iressa and ZD1839.

The active ingredient in a drug that is used to treat pancreatic cancer that is advanced or has spread. It is also used with other drugs to treat breast cancer that has spread, advanced ovarian cancer, and non-small cell lung cancer that is advanced or has spread. It is also being studied in the treatment of other types of cancer. Gemcitabine blocks the cell from making DNA and may kill cancer cells. It is a type of antimetabolite

The functional and physical unit of heredity passed from parent to offspring. Genes are pieces of DNA, and most genes contain the information for making a specific protein.

The process by which a gene gets turned on in a cell to make RNA and proteins. Gene expression may be measured by looking at the RNA, or the protein made from the RNA, or what the protein does in a cell.

The complete genetic material of an organism.

A fast-growing type of central nervous system tumor that forms from glial (supportive) tissue of the brain and spinal cord and has cells that look very different from normal cells. Glioblastoma usually occurs in adults and affects the brain more often than the spinal cord. Also called GBM, glioblastoma multiforme, and grade IV astrocytoma.

A description of a tumor based on how abnormal the cancer cells look under a microscope and how quickly the tumor is likely to grow and spread. Grading systems are different for each type of cancer.

A system for classifying cancer cells in terms of how abnormal they appear when examined under a microscope. The objective of a grading system is to provide information about the probable growth rate of the tumor and its tendency to spread. The systems used to grade tumors vary with each type of cancer. Grading plays a role in treatment decisions.

A substance made by the body that functions to regulate cell division and cell survival. Some growth factors are also produced in the laboratory and used in biological therapy.

Having to do with the female reproductive tract (including the cervix, endometrium, fallopian tubes, ovaries, uterus, and vagina).

Cancer of the female reproductive tract, including the cervix, endometrium, fallopian tubes, ovaries, uterus, and vagina.

Cancer that arises in the head or neck region (in the nasal cavity, sinuses, lips, mouth, salivary glands, throat, or larynx [voice box]).

Refers to the liver.

An intensive drug treatment to kill cancer cells, but that also destroys the bone marrow and can cause other severe side effects. High-dose chemotherapy is usually followed by bone marrow or stem cell transplantation to rebuild the bone marrow.

An amount of radiation that is greater than that given in typical radiation therapy. High-dose radiation is precisely directed at the tumor to avoid damaging healthy tissue, and may kill more cancer cells in fewer treatments. Also called HDR.

A type of protein found in chromosomes. Histones bind to DNA, help give chromosomes their shape, and help control the activity of genes.

Surgery to remove the uterus and, sometimes, the cervix. When the uterus and the cervix are removed, it is called a total hysterectomy. When only the uterus is removed, it is called a partial hysterectomy.

In the laboratory (outside the body). The opposite of in vivo (in the body).

In the body. The opposite of in vitro (outside the body or in the laboratory).

The number of new cases of a disease diagnosed each year.

Intensity-modulated radiation therapy is a 3-dimensional conformal radiation therapy planning and delivery tool that shapes the radiation dose distribution and minimizes the dose to normal structures. Intensity-modulated radiation therapy implies inverse planning algorithms (i.e., the physician determines radiation treatment parameters to maximize dose to the target and minimize dose to normal tissues, and the planning algorithm maximizes the adherence to these parameters by modifying the beam spatially and/or temporally). Spatial and temporal beam modification is often achieved by dynamically moving multi-leaf collimators. Intensity-modulated radiation therapy can also be achieved via custom-made beam compensators, which are derived from inverse planning algorithms. A novel way to deliver intensity-modulated radiation therapy is tomotherapy, in which a bank of collimated leaves shutter open and closed while rotating around the patient in a spiral manner. The unifying principle of all intensity-modulated radiation therapy planning and delivery methods is inverse planning. Intensity-modulated radiation therapy results in a greater deposition of low doses to normal tissue, which may increase the risk of second malignancies. Also called IMRT.

Having to do with the intestines.

Within the peritoneal cavity (the area that contains the abdominal organs). Also called IP.

Treatment in which anticancer drugs are put directly into the abdominal cavity through a thin tube.

Within the pleural cavity.

Having to do with the inside of the vagina (the birth canal).

Into or within a vein. Intravenous usually refers to a way of giving a drug or other substance through a needle or tube inserted into a vein. Also called IV.

The use of high-energy radiation from x-rays, gamma rays, neutrons, protons, and other sources to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation may come from a machine outside the body (external-beam radiation therapy), or it may come from radioactive material placed in the body near cancer cells (internal radiation therapy). Systemic irradiation uses a radioactive substance, such as a radiolabeled monoclonal antibody, that travels in the blood to tissues throughout the body. Also called radiation therapy and radiotherapy.

Into or within a vein. IV usually refers to a way of giving a drug or other substance through a needle or tube inserted into a vein. Also called intravenous.

In medicine, the place where two or more bones are connected. Examples include the shoulder, elbow, knee, and jaw.

A measure of volume for a liquid, using the metric system. One L is equal to 1,000 cubic centimeters (cc), 1,000 milliliters (mm), or 1.0567 quarts (qt). Also called liter.

A procedure that uses a laparoscope, inserted through the abdominal wall, to examine the inside of the abdomen. A laparoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing. It may also have a tool to remove tissue to be checked under a microscope for signs of disease.

A surgical incision made in the wall of the abdomen.

The area of the throat containing the vocal cords and used for breathing, swallowing, and talking. Also called voice box.

Where alleles (DNA markers) occur together more often than can be accounted for by chance because of their physical proximity on a chromosome. Also called linkage disequilibrium.

A malignant (cancer) tumor of smooth muscle cells that can arise almost anywhere in the body, but is most common in the uterus, abdomen, or pelvis.

An anticancer drug that promotes differentiation by increasing the levels of retinoic acid within the tumor.

A drug preparation that contains the active drug inside very tiny, fat-like particles. This form is easier for the body to absorb and allows more drug to get to the target area of the body, such as a tumor. Liposomal drugs may have fewer side effects and work better than other forms of the drug.

Surgery to remove a whole lobe (section) of an organ (such as the lungs, liver, brain, or thyroid gland).

The process of determining or marking the location or site of a lesion or disease. May also refer to the process of keeping a lesion or disease in a specific location or site.

Restricted to the site of origin, without evidence of spread.

One of a pair of organs in the chest that supplies the body with oxygen, and removes carbon dioxide from the body.

Cancer that forms in tissues of the lung, usually in the cells lining air passages. The two main types are small cell lung cancer and non-small cell lung cancer. These types are diagnosed based on how the cells look under a microscope.

The clear fluid that travels through the lymphatic system and carries cells that help fight infections and other diseases. Also called lymphatic fluid.

A rounded mass of lymphatic tissue that is surrounded by a capsule of connective tissue. Lymph nodes filter lymph (lymphatic fluid), and they store lymphocytes (white blood cells). They are located along lymphatic vessels. Also called lymph gland.

A surgical procedure in which the lymph nodes are removed and a sample of tissue is checked under a microscope for signs of cancer. For a regional lymphadenectomy, some of the lymph nodes in the tumor area are removed; for a radical lymphadenectomy, most or all of the lymph nodes in the tumor area are removed. Also called lymph node dissection.

Referring to lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell. Also refers to tissue in which lymphocytes develop.

Cancer that begins in cells of the immune system. There are two basic categories of lymphomas. One kind is Hodgkin lymphoma, which is marked by the presence of a type of cell called the Reed-Sternberg cell. The other category is non-Hodgkin lymphomas, which includes a large, diverse group of cancers of immune system cells. Non-Hodgkin lymphomas can be further divided into cancers that have an indolent (slow-growing) course and those that have an aggressive (fast-growing) course. These subtypes behave and respond to treatment differently. Both Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphomas can occur in children and adults, and prognosis and treatment depend on the stage and the type of cancer.

In chemistry, M is the amount of a substance that has 6.023 x 10(23) atoms or molecules of that substance. Also called mole (chemical).

Cancerous. Malignant cells can invade and destroy nearby tissue and spread to other parts of the body.

An aggressive (fast-growing) type of B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma that usually occurs in middle-aged or older adults. It is marked by small- to medium-size cancer cells that may be in the lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow, blood, and gastrointestinal system.

Refers to the practices and procedures used for the prevention, treatment, or relief of symptoms of a diseases or abnormal conditions. This term may also refer to a legal drug used for the same purpose.

The time of life when a woman’s ovaries stop producing hormones and menstrual periods stop. Natural menopause usually occurs around age 50. A woman is said to be in menopause when she hasn’t had a period for 12 months in a row. Symptoms of menopause include hot flashes, mood swings, night sweats, vaginal dryness, trouble concentrating, and infertility.

A benign (not cancer) or malignant (cancer) tumor affecting the lining of the chest or abdomen. Exposure to asbestos particles in the air increases the risk of developing malignant mesothelioma.

The spread of cancer from one part of the body to another. A tumor formed by cells that have spread is called a “metastatic tumor” or a “metastasis.” The metastatic tumor contains cells that are like those in the original (primary) tumor. The plural form of metastasis is metastases (meh-TAS-tuh-SEEZ).

Having to do with metastasis, which is the spread of cancer from the primary site (place where it started) to other places in the body.

A chemical reaction in which a small molecule called a methyl group is added to other molecules. Methylation of proteins or nucleic acids may affect how they act in the body.

A laboratory tool used to analyze large numbers of genes or proteins at one time. In a microarray, biologic molecules such as DNA, RNA, or protein are placed in a pattern onto a surface such as a glass slide. Other substances are added to these slides to detect specific patterns of molecules. Microarrays are being used to help diagnose diseases, such as cancer, and to develop treatments for them.

A drug used to treat advanced prostate cancer that does not respond to hormones, adult acute nonlymphocytic leukemia, and advanced or chronic multiple sclerosis. It is also being studied in the treatment of other cancers. It belongs to the family of drugs called antitumor antibiotics. Also called Novantrone.

A method of treatment. For example, surgery and chemotherapy are treatment modalities.

A disease or the incidence of disease within a population. Morbidity also refers to adverse effects caused by a treatment.

The state of being mortal (destined to die). Mortality also refers to the death rate, or the number of deaths in a certain group of people in a certain period of time. Mortality may be reported for people who have a certain disease, live in one area of the country, or who are of a certain gender, age, or ethnic group.

A procedure in which radio waves and a powerful magnet linked to a computer are used to create detailed pictures of areas inside the body. These pictures can show the difference between normal and diseased tissue. MRI makes better images of organs and soft tissue than other scanning techniques, such as computed tomography (CT) or x-ray. MRI is especially useful for imaging the brain, the spine, the soft tissue of joints, and the inside of bones. Also called magnetic resonance imaging, NMRI, and nuclear magnetic resonance imaging.

Containing or resembling mucin, the main compound in mucus.

Therapy that combines more than one method of treatment. Also called combination therapy and multimodality treatment.

Treatment given as a first step to shrink a tumor before the main treatment, which is usually surgery, is given. Examples of neoadjuvant therapy include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and hormone therapy. It is a type of induction therapy.

Having to do with the interactions between the nervous system and the endocrine system. Neuroendocrine describes certain cells that release hormones into the blood in response to stimulation of the nervous system.

A group of lung cancers that are named for the kinds of cells found in the cancer and how the cells look under a microscope. The three main types of non-small cell lung cancer are squamous cell carcinoma, large cell carcinoma, and adenocarcinoma. Non-small cell lung cancer is the most common kind of lung cancer.

A registered nurse who has additional education and training in how to diagnose and treat disease. NPs are licensed at the state level and certified by national nursing organizations. In cancer care, an NP may manage the primary care of patients and their families, based on a practice agreement with a doctor. Also called advanced practice nurse, APN, and nurse practitioner.

Blockage of a passageway.

A gene that is a mutated (changed) form of a gene involved in normal cell growth. Oncogenes may cause the growth of cancer cells. Mutations in genes that become oncogenes can be inherited or caused by being exposed to substances in the environment that cause cancer.

The study of cancer.

A specific result or effect that can be measured. Examples of outcomes include decreased pain, reduced tumor size, and improvement of disease.

Having to do with the ovaries, the female reproductive glands in which the ova (eggs) are formed. The ovaries are located in the pelvis, one on each side of the uterus.

Cancer that forms in tissues of the ovary (one of a pair of female reproductive glands in which the ova, or eggs, are formed). Most ovarian cancers are either ovarian epithelial carcinomas (cancer that begins in the cells on the surface of the ovary) or malignant germ cell tumors (cancer that begins in egg cells).

A colorless, odorless gas. It is needed for animal and plant life. Oxygen that is breathed in enters the blood from the lungs and travels to the tissues.

A health professional who is licensed to do certain medical procedures under the guidance of a doctor. A PA may take medical histories, do physical exams, take blood and urine samples, care for wounds, and give injections and immunizations. Also called physician assistant.

A drug used to treat breast cancer, ovarian cancer, and AIDS-related Kaposi sarcoma. It is also used together with another drug to treat non-small cell lung cancer. Paclitaxel is also being studied in the treatment of other types of cancer. It blocks cell growth by stopping cell division and may kill cancer cells. It is a type of antimitotic agent. Also called Taxol.

The stage of cancer (amount or spread of cancer in the body) that is based on how different from normal the cells in samples of tissue look under a microscope.

Having to do with the pelvis (the lower part of the abdomen located between the hip bones).

Surgery to remove the lower colon, rectum, and bladder, and create stomata (openings) through which urine and stool are passed out of the body. In women, the cervix, vagina, ovaries, and nearby lymph nodes are also removed.

Surgery to remove lymph nodes in the pelvis for examination under a microscope to see if they contain cancer.

The lower part of the abdomen, located between the hip bones.

A molecule that contains two or more amino acids (the molecules that join together to form proteins). Peptides that contain many amino acids are called polypeptides or proteins.

Having to do with the parietal peritoneum (the tissue that lines the abdominal wall and pelvic cavity) and visceral peritoneum (the tissue that covers most of the organs in the abdomen, including the intestines).

The activity of drugs in the body over a period of time, including the processes by which drugs are absorbed, distributed in the body, localized in the tissues, and excreted.

The first step in testing a new treatment in humans. These studies test the best way to give a new treatment (for example, by mouth, intravenous infusion, or injection) and the best dose. The dose is usually increased a little at a time in order to find the highest dose that does not cause harmful side effects. Because little is known about the possible risks and benefits of the treatments being tested, phase I trials usually include only a small number of patients who have not been helped by other treatments.

A trial to study the safety, dosage levels, and response to a new treatment.

A study to test whether a new treatment has an anticancer effect (for example, whether it shrinks a tumor or improves blood test results) and whether it works against a certain type of cancer.

The person(s) in charge of a clinical trial or a scientific research grant. The PI prepares and carries out the clinical trial protocol (plan for the study) or research paid for by the grant. The PI also analyzes the data and reports the results of the trial or grant research. Also called principal investigator.

The initial study examining a new method or treatment.

An inactive substance or treatment that looks the same as, and is given the same way as, an active drug or treatment being tested. The effects of the active drug or treatment are compared to the effects of the placebo.

The clear, yellowish, fluid part of the blood that carries the blood cells. The proteins that form blood clots are in plasma.

A metal that is an important component of some anticancer drugs, such as cisplatin and carboplatin.

Surgery to remove all of one lung. In a partial pneumonectomy, one or more lobes of a lung are removed.

Inflammation of the lungs. This may be caused by disease, infection, radiation therapy, allergy, or irritation of lung tissue by inhaled substances.

Having to do with the time after menopause. Menopause (“change of life”) is the time in a woman's life when menstrual periods stop permanently.

After surgery.

A drug used in the treatment of peripheral T-cell lymphoma (a fast-growing form of non-Hodgkin lymphoma). It is also being studied in the treatment of other types of cancer. Pralatrexate may block the growth of cancer cells and cause them to die. It is a type of dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) inhibitor. Also called FOLOTYN.

A drug used to lessen inflammation and lower the body’s immune response. It is used with other drugs to treat leukemia and lymphoma and other types of cancer. It is also used alone or with other drugs to prevent or treat many other conditions. These include conditions related to cancer, such as anemia (a low level of red blood cells), allergic reactions, and loss of appetite. Prednisone is a type of therapeutic glucocorticoid.

Initial treatment used to reduce a cancer. Primary treatment is followed by other treatments, such as chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and hormone therapy to get rid of cancer that remains. Also called first-line therapy, induction therapy, and primary therapy.

The original tumor.

In medicine, the course of a disease, such as cancer, as it becomes worse or spreads in the body.

In medicine, a study or clinical trial in which participants are identified and then followed forward in time.

A gland in the male reproductive system. The prostate surrounds the part of the urethra (the tube that empties the bladder) just below the bladder, and produces a fluid that forms part of the semen.

Cancer that forms in tissues of the prostate (a gland in the male reproductive system found below the bladder and in front of the rectum). Prostate cancer usually occurs in older men.

An operation to remove part or all of the prostate. Radical (or total) prostatectomy is the removal of the entire prostate and some of the tissue around it.

A device, such as an artificial leg, that replaces a part of the body.

A drug that blocks the action of proteasomes. A proteasome is a large protein complex that helps destroy other cellular proteins when they are no longer needed. Proteasome inhibitors are being studied in the treatment of cancer.

A molecule made up of amino acids that are needed for the body to function properly. Proteins are the basis of body structures such as skin and hair and of substances such as enzymes, cytokines, and antibodies.

A protein made by the prostate gland and found in the blood. PSA blood levels may be higher than normal in men who have prostate cancer, benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), or infection or inflammation of the prostate gland. Also called prostate-specific antigen.

Having to do with the lungs.

Energy released in the form of particle or electromagnetic waves. Common sources of radiation include radon gas, cosmic rays from outer space, medical x-rays, and energy given off by a radioisotope (unstable form of a chemical element that releases radiation as it breaks down and becomes more stable).

The use of high-energy radiation from x-rays, gamma rays, neutrons, protons, and other sources to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation may come from a machine outside the body (external-beam radiation therapy), or it may come from radioactive material placed in the body near cancer cells (internal radiation therapy). Systemic radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance, such as a radiolabeled monoclonal antibody, that travels in the blood to tissues throughout the body. Also called irradiation and radiotherapy.

Surgery to remove the uterus, cervix, and part of the vagina. The ovaries, fallopian tubes, and nearby lymph nodes may also be removed.

Any compound that has been joined with a radioactive substance.

The use of radiation (such as x-rays) or other imaging technologies (such as ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging) to diagnose or treat disease.

Radiosurgery implies the delivery of a single, high dose of radiation using stereotactic techniques. Classically, for cranial radiosurgery, a rigid neurosurgical frame is attached to the patient’s skull, and a stereotactic localizing device is attached to the frame to allow for improved targeting accuracy. Commercial radiosurgery systems are available in which immobilization is achieved without a rigid neurosurgical frame. While there are innumerable commercial radiosurgery and stereotactic radiation therapy systems, all of these systems utilize the same underlying principles: (1) patient immobilization, (2) targeting accuracy, (3) delivery of high doses of radiation, and (4) heterogeneous dose distribution with a steep dose gradient. Commercial radiosurgery systems include Gamma Knife, which utilizes 201 radioactive cobalt sources positioned in a semispherical array, and Cyberknife, which utilizes robotics technology allowing the linear accelerator (LINAC) to track the patient position in real time during treatment. A standard LINAC can be equipped with cones attached to its head, allowing for circular collimation of the beam. The dose distribution from Gamma Knife, Cyberknife, or a standard LINAC equipped with cones is spherical, and thus treating nonspherically shaped targets requires the superposition of multiple spherical dose distributions. A LINAC equipped with multi-leaf collimators can also be used for radiosurgery, which allows more conformal beam shaping. Also called radiation surgery, stereotactic radiosurgery, and stereotaxic radiosurgery.

The use of high-energy radiation from x-rays, gamma rays, neutrons, protons, and other sources to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation may come from a machine outside the body (external-beam radiation therapy), or it may come from radioactive material placed in the body near cancer cells (internal radiation therapy). Systemic radiotherapy uses a radioactive substance, such as a radiolabeled monoclonal antibody, that travels in the blood to tissues throughout the body. Also called irradiation and radiation therapy.

A molecule inside or on the surface of a cell that binds to a specific substance and causes a specific physiologic effect in the cell.

By or having to do with the rectum. The rectum is the last several inches of the large intestine closest to the anus.

Cancer that forms in the tissues of the rectum (the last several inches of the large intestine closest to the anus).

In medicine, the act of a doctor in which a patient is sent to another doctor for additional healthcare services.

In medicine, describes a disease or condition that does not respond to treatment.

A decrease in the size of a tumor or in the extent of cancer in the body.

In cancer, the length of time after treatment ends that a patient survives without the return of any signs or symptoms of the cancer. In a clinical trial, measuring the relapse-free survival is one way to see how well a new treatment works. Also called relapse-free survival time and RFS.

A decrease in or disappearance of signs and symptoms of cancer. In partial remission, some, but not all, signs and symptoms of cancer have disappeared. In complete remission, all signs and symptoms of cancer have disappeared, although cancer still may be in the body.

Able to be removed by surgery.

Removed by surgery.

Surgery to remove tissue or part or all of an organ.

In medicine, an improvement related to treatment.

Having to do with the area outside or behind the peritoneum (the tissue that lines the abdominal wall and covers most of the organs in the abdomen).

In medicine, risk groups are used to describe people who are alike in important ways. For example, patients with the same type of cancer may be divided into different risk groups that depend on certain aspects of their disease. These risk groups may be based on the patients’ chance of being cured (good versus poor) or the chance that their disease will come back (high versus low). Treatment may be based on which risk group a patient falls into. Risk groups can also be used to describe people who share traits and behaviors that affect their chance of developing a disease. For example, people who do not smoke are in a lower risk group for lung cancer than people who smoke.

One of two types of nucleic acid made by cells. RNA contains information that has been copied from DNA (the other type of nucleic acid). Cells make several different forms of RNA, and each form has a specific job in the cell. Many forms of RNA have functions related to making proteins. RNA is also the genetic material of some viruses instead of DNA. RNA can be made in the laboratory and used in research studies. Also called ribonucleic acid.

A substance being studied in the treatment of cancer. Romidepsin is a type of depsipeptide and histone deacetylase inhibitor. Also called FR901228.

A cancer of the bone, cartilage, fat, muscle, blood vessels, or other connective or supportive tissue.

Surgery performed after primary treatment to determine whether tumor cells remain.

When referring to a medical test, sensitivity refers to the percentage of people who test positive for a specific disease among a group of people who have the disease. No test has 100% sensitivity because some people who have the disease will test negative for it (false negatives).

The clear liquid part of the blood that remains after blood cells and clotting proteins have been removed.

Refers to muscle, fat, fibrous tissue, blood vessels, or other supporting tissue of the body.

A cancer that begins in the muscle, fat, fibrous tissue, blood vessels, or other supporting tissue of the body.

Flat cell that looks like a fish scale under a microscope. These cells cover inside and outside surfaces of the body. They are found in the tissues that form the surface of the skin, the lining of the hollow organs of the body (such as the bladder, kidney, and uterus), and the passages of the respiratory and digestive tracts.

The extent of a cancer in the body. Staging is usually based on the size of the tumor, whether lymph nodes contain cancer, and whether the cancer has spread from the original site to other parts of the body.

Performing exams and tests to learn the extent of the cancer within the body, especially whether the disease has spread from the original site to other parts of the body. It is important to know the stage of the disease in order to plan the best treatment.

A system that is used to describe the extent of cancer in the body. Staging is usually based on the size of the tumor and whether the cancer has spread from where it started to nearby areas, lymph nodes, or other parts of the body.

A substance that has been studied in the treatment of cancer. It belongs to the families of drugs called angiogenesis inhibitors and tyrosine kinase inhibitors. Also called semaxanib.

A procedure to remove or repair a part of the body or to find out whether disease is present. An operation.

A set of symptoms or conditions that occur together and suggest the presence of a certain disease or an increased chance of developing the disease.

In medicine, describes the interaction of two or more drugs when their combined effect is greater than the sum of the effects seen when each drug is given alone.

Affecting the entire body.

A hormone that is made by the thyroid gland and contains iodine. T4 increases the rate of chemical reactions in cells and helps control growth and development. T4 can also be made in the laboratory and is used to treat thyroid disorders. Also called L-3,5,5’-tetraiodothyronine, thyroxin, and thyroxine.

A drug used to treat certain types of breast cancer in women and men. It is also used to prevent breast cancer in women who have had ductal carcinoma in situ (abnormal cells in the ducts of the breast) and in women who are at a high risk of developing breast cancer. Tamoxifen is also being studied in the treatment of other types of cancer. It blocks the effects of the hormone estrogen in the breast. Tamoxifen is a type of antiestrogen. Also called tamoxifen citrate.

An enzyme in cells that helps keep them alive by adding DNA to telomeres (the ends of chromosomes). Each time a cell divides, the telomeres lose a small amount of DNA and become shorter. Over time, the chromosomes become damaged and the cells die. Telomerase helps keep this from happening. Cancer cells usually have more telomerase than most normal cells.

A hormone made mainly in the testes (part of the male reproductive system). It is needed to develop and maintain male sex characteristics, such as facial hair, deep voice, and muscle growth. Testosterone may also be made in the laboratory and is used to treat certain medical conditions.

Having to do with treating disease and helping healing take place.

Treatment.

Having to do with the chest.

A tumor of the thymus, an organ that is part of the lymphatic system and is located in the chest, behind the breastbone.

A group or layer of cells that work together to perform a specific function.

A series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body. The pictures are created by a computer linked to an x-ray machine.

A drug used to treat certain types of ovarian cancer, lung cancer, and cervical cancer. Topotecan is a type of topoisomerase inhibitor. Also called Hycamtin and topotecan hydrochloride.

The extent to which something is poisonous or harmful.

A procedure in which a person is given an infusion of whole blood or parts of blood. The blood may be donated by another person, or it may have been taken from the patient earlier and stored until needed. Also called blood transfusion.

A drug used to treat breast cancer that is HER2-positive (expresses the human epidermal growth factor receptor 2). It is also used with other drugs to treat HER2-positive stomach cancer that has not already been treated and has spread to other parts of the body. It is being studied in the treatment of other types of cancer. Trastuzumab binds to HER2 on the surface of HER2-positive cancer cells, and may kill them. It is a type of monoclonal antibody. Also called Herceptin.

An abnormal mass of tissue that results when cells divide more than they should or do not die when they should. Tumors may be benign (not cancer), or malignant (cancer). Also called neoplasm.

Unable to be removed with surgery.

The muscular canal that goes from the uterus to the outside of the body. During birth, the baby passes through the vagina. Also called birth canal.

Having to do with the vagina (the birth canal).

An anticancer drug that belongs to the family of plant drugs called vinca alkaloids.

In medicine, a very simple microorganism that infects cells and may cause disease. Because viruses can multiply only inside infected cells, they are not considered to be alive.

A part of the United Nations that deals with major health issues around the world. The WHO sets standards for disease control, health care, and medicines; conducts education and research programs; and publishes scientific papers and reports. A major goal is to improve access to health care for people in developing countries and in groups who do not get good health care. The headquarters are located in Geneva, Switzerland. Also called World Health Organization.